Erdel (A.Decei ile) sayfasının kaynağını görüntüle

== Erdel ==
[[Dosya:Romania Regions Transylvania.jpg|küçükresim|449x449pik|Transylvania Restrict]]
'''''ERDEL, ERDIL or ERDEHSTAN''''', from the Hungarian Erdely (erdo elve = beyond the forest); Ardeal in Rumanian; Siebenbiirgen in German; the Latin name Terra Ultrasilvas and later Transsilvania being a translation of the Hungarian—the province of Transylvania which now constitutes the western portion of Rumania. In Ottoman sources the name of Erdel occurs first in the Ruzndme-i Suleymdni in the course of a description of the reception into the Ottoman army of King Yanosh of the wildyet of Engurus (i.e., of the Hungarians), who is described as having been formerly the Bey of Erdel (cf. Ferldun Bey, Munshd^dt, 2nd ed., Istanbul 1275, ii, 275). The variant Erdelistan occurs also in later sources (Nacima, i, loc. var.; Ewliya Celebi, Seydfyatndrne, i, 181; Mustafa Nurl Pasha, Natd^idj. alwukucdt, ii, 72). Geographically speaking, Erdel borders on Bpghdan (Moldavia) in the east, Eflak (Wallachia) in the south, the Banat (from which it is separated by the Iron Gates—Demir [Temir, etc.]- Kapi) in the south-west, and the province of Marmarosh (Maramures) in the north. Thus delimited, Erdel is a basin surrounded by the Carpathians and the Transylvanian Alps on three sides, and separated from the Hungarian plain by the Erchegyseg (Rom. Muntii Apuseni) mountains. Ottoman Erdel often exceeded, however, these geographical limits at the expense of neighbouring countries. Erdel can be subdivided into three main areas: the Erdel plain, higher and more broken than the Hungarian plain and crossed by the river Muresh and its tributaries; the country of the Sekels in the east, and, finally, the area of the southern Carpathians. The first contact of the Ottomans with Erdel occurred in the middle of the 8th/i4th century. In 769/1367, Denes (Dennis), who had become voyvoda (prince) of Erdel after being ban (lord) of Vidin, fought the Bulgarians supported by Murad I. The first Ottoman campaign against Hungary and, therefore, Erdel is put by cAshikpasha-zade (ed. Giese, 60) in 793/1391. The large raid which occurred in 823/1420 under Mehemmed I must have been the work of the frontier guards from Vidin. The following year the frontier bey of the Danube, encouraged by the voyvoda of Eflak, captured and burnt down the city of Brashov. There were other raids in 829/1426 and 836/1432, the latter being ledby Evrenos-zade CA1I Bey, acting in conjunction with the Bey of Eflak. Turkish historians speak of another raid by CA1I Bey (sent by Murad II) in 841/1437 ( cAshikpasha-zade, op. cit., no; Neshrl, Tewdrikh-i dl-i ^Othmdn, Well al-DIn Efendl MS, no. 2351, f. 177). The following year, the Sultan himself entered the territory of Erdel for the first time, accompanied by Vlad Dracul, the Bey of Eflak, and advanced as far as Sibin (Sacd al-DIn, i, 321). An interesting account of Ottoman customs and organization has been left by one of the Saxon prisoners taken during this campaign (Cronica Abconterfayung der Turkei . . ., Augsburg 1531). Resistance against the Ottomans stiffened with the appearance on the scene of Yanku Hunyades (in Hung. Hunyadi Janos), "the White Knight of Wallachia", who after engaging the Ottomans at Semendere in 841/1437 and near Belgrade in 845/1441, defeated and killed the Ottoman commander Mezld Bey in 846/1442. 

[[Dosya:Bran castle (47626731362).jpg|küçükresim|457x457pik|Bran Castle ]]
The same year Hunyadi, supported this time by Vlad Dracul, defeated in Wallachia Khadim Shihab al-DIn Pasha, the Beylerbeyi of Rum-lli (Rumeli) and thus seized the initiative in the Balkans, preserving it until the fateful battle of Varna. Ottoman raids were resumed under Mehemmed II: there was a raid in 879/1474 against Hunyadi's son, Matthias; a force of 30,000 troops entered Erdel in 884/1479, but was defeated; and there was yet another raid in 898/1493. During the temporary cessation of Ottoman raids which then followed, the Hungarian and Wallachian peasants of Erdel revolted (in 920/1514), but were suppressed by the feudal lords, an important part being played by the voyvoda of Erdel, John Zapolyai ("Sapolyayi Yanosh" in Pecewi, i, 108), who, after the battle of Mohacz, proclaimed himself King of Hungary at Istolni Belgrad [q.v.] (Hung. Szekesfehervar, Ger. Stuhlweissenburg) in 1526. Challenged, however, by the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, Zapolyai fled to Poland, sending an ambassador to Istanbul to obtain the Sultan's support. This was granted in change for a recognition of Ottoman suzerainty, Zapolyai swearing allegiance to the Sultan in person during the Vienna campaign (Ferldun Bey, ii, 570; CA1I, Kunh al-akhbdr, 1st. Univ. Lib., no. 5959/32, f. 293). In 936/1530, Mehmed Pasha, the sand[ak-beyi of Silistre (Silistria), supported by Vlad, voyvoda of Eflak, captured Brashov and handed it over to Zapolyai, who appointed Stephen Bathory voyvoda of Erdel. Ottoman supremacy in Erdel (948/1541-1110/1699): a few days before his death in 1540, Zapolyai secured the Sultan's agreement to the succession of his son John Sigismund (Pecewi, "Simon Yanosh" and "Yanosh Jigmon", i, 228 and 434 passim] but in other Ottoman sources he is generally called Istefan), this time against payment of a tribute (kharddi). During the Budin campaign, the boy was shown to Suleyman the Magnificent who granted him a sand^ak in the wildyet of Erdel, with the promise of a kingdom later (cf. CA1I, Kunh al-akhbdr, f. 277). Ottoman supremacy was confirmed in the treaty of 948/1541, which provides for Ottoman protection against payment of a tribute, which was first fixed at 10,000 ducats, was raised to 15,000 between 983/1575 and 1010/1601, was then remitted for ten years and later still fixed again at 10,000. In the second half of the nth/i7th century it was again raised first to 15,000 and then to 40,000 gold coins (altin, altun). It was also customary to give an annual present (pishkesh) of 10,000 to 60,000 coins. The prince of Erdel was nominated by the local Diet, the Sultan confirming the choice by sending him a caparisoned horse, a standard, a sword and a robe of honour (for the order of precedence as between the prince of Erdel and the voyvodas of Eflak and Boghdan, see Natd^idi al-wuku'dt, i, 137). There were also cases of the Porte rejecting a nomination or dismissing a prince, as in 1022/1613 with Gabor Bathory and in 1067/1657 with George Rak6czi II. The princes' foreign policy had to conform to the Porte's wishes, but they were free in their internal affairs. They were represented at the Porte first by special envoys, the first permanent agent (fyapu kakhyasl = kedkhuddsi (in Erdel documents kapitiha), being appointed in 967/1560. This agent represented both the Bey of Erdel and the three local millets (Hungarians, Germans and Sekels, the Wallachians being denied legal existence). His residence was in the Balat quarter of Istanbul, in a street known today as Macarlar Yokusu ("Hunga704 ERDEL tians' Rise") near the residences of the agents of Boghdan and Eflak. During John Sigismund's minority, the Diet appointed as regent the Croatian Catholic friar George Martinuzzi-Utyeszenicz (Utes'enic) (in CA1I, f. 287 "brata", i.e., "brother"), who, however, handed over Erdel to the Habsburgs in 1551. The beylerbeyi of Rum-ili Mehmed Pasha Sokollu thereupon led an army into Erdel (CA1I, f. 287). Martinuzzi made his peace with the Ottomans, but was then attacked by the Austrian General Castaldo and killed in 1552. A second army was sent to the Banat under Kara Ahmed Pasha who captured Temesvar (Timisoara). Castaldo withdrew from Erdel in *553> the country being for a time ruled by voyvodas on behalf of the Habsburgs, until in 1556 the Diet invited back the Queen Mother Isabella and John Sigismund, who, coming from Poland, established their seat of government in the Belgrade of Erdel (Erdel Belgradi, Rum. Alba Julia, Hung. Gyulafehervar, Ger. Karlsburg). John Sigismund ruled alone from 1559 to 1571 both over Erdel and over the northern districts of Hungary in constant competition with the Habsburgs. Although by the agreement of Satmar in 1564 he recognized Emperor Ferdinand as King of Hungary, peace was not long preserved, John appealing to the Sultan for help (cf. Pecewi, i, 412), and the latter responding by undertaking the Szigetvar expedition in 1566. John's reign witnessed also the revolt of the Sekels and the suppression of their traditional privileges in 1562 and the proclamation of religious toleration in Erdel by the Diet's decisions of 1564 and 1571. His successor Stephen Bathory (1571-6) managed to preserve a precarious balance between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans, by recognizing the Emperor Maximilian as King of Hungary and thus becoming his vassal by the treaty of Speyer in 1571, while continuing payment of tribute to the Porte. 


In 1576 he was elected King of Poland by the efforts of the Porte and of the Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha (see Ahmed Refik, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha ve Lehistdn intikhdbdti, in TOEM, 6th year, 664 ff.), Erdel being governed until 1581 by his brother Christopher Bathory and then until 1602 (although with intervals) by his son Sigismund Bathory. The latter wavered in his loyalty to the Porte, entering the Holy League in 1593 and executing the leaders of the pro-Turkish party in 1594 at a time when he pretended to be getting ready to join the Ottoman army under Kodja Sinan Pasha. He incited the voyvodas of Boghdan and Eflak against the Ottomans and defeated in 1003/1595 the Ottoman army sent to suppress their rebellion. After the severe defeat suffered by the Imperialist forces at the battle of MezoKeresztes in the following year, he withdrew from Erdel, relinquishing the rule to his cousin Cardinal Andreas Bathory, who had been brought up at the Polish court and was, therefore, pro-Ottoman. The latter was, however, defeated by the rebellious voyvoda of Eflak, Mikhal (Michael), who was in turn killed by the Austrians. The latter then occupied the country, foiling an attempt by Sigismund Bathory to re-establish his rule. In 1603 a Sekel nobleman, Szekely Mozes, made an unsuccessful attempt to oust the Austrians with Ottoman support. An Erdel nobleman, Stephen Bocskay, who had fled to the Ottomans (see Nacima, i, 386) was more successful, and by the treaty of Vienna in 1606, the Emperor Rudolf recognized him as prince of Erdel. His death was followed by a period of instability which included the tyrannical rule of Gabor Bathory (1608-13), known in Ottoman sources as "the mad king". The beylerbeyi of Kanije, Iskender Pasha, succeeded in deposing him and in getting the diet at Kolojvar to elect in his place Gabor Bethlen, whose rule marks the golden age of the principality of Erdel. His death in 1629 was followed by a short interregnum, his policy of safeguarding local autonomy through cooperation with the Ottomans being re-established by George Rakoczi I (1630-48). In 1046/1636 the Ottomans made an unsuccessful attempt to unseat him in favour of Gabor Bethlen's brother, Stephen Bethlen. George Rakoczi I was succeeded by his son George II (1648-57, 1658, 1659-60), whose unsuccessful attempt to gain the crown of Poland against the wishes of the Porte led eventually to his death, Erdel being occupied by Ottoman troops. One of the prisoners taken by the Ottomans in Kolojvar was the young Hungarian who later embraced Islam and became known as Ibrahim Miiteferrika [q.vJ\. Ottoman supremacy in Erdel was re-established in the Kopriilii period, the principality being governed from 1072-3/1662 to 1101/1690 by the Ottoman nominee Michael Apafiy. The fate of Erdel autonomy was, however, sealed when Austria gained the upper hand in her wars with the Ottomans, Michael Apafiy himself allowing Habsburg troops to enter his country. In 1102/1691 the famous Diploma Leopoldinum fixed the status of Erdel as a Habsburg crown land, the local Diet being, however, kept in existence. Austrian sovereignty was legally recognized by the treaty of Karlowitz (Karlofca) in 1110/1699. Francis Rakoczi II tried in 1703 to put the clock back: after a local revolution he was chosen prince in 1704, but was defeated in 1710 and fled to France the following year. An attempt was made by the Ottomans to make use of him in their war with Austria in 1127/1715, but, after the treaty of Passarowitz he and his Hungarian companions had to withdraw and were settled at Tekirdagh (Rodosto in Thrace) (cf. Rashid, iv, v, passim; Ahmed Refik, Memdlik-i ^Othmdniyyede Rakoczi ve tewdbi^i, Istanbul 1338; M. Tayyib Gokbilgin, Rakoczi Perenc II ve tevdbiine dair yeni vesikalar, in Belleten, v/2o, 1941). A similarly unsuccessful attempt was made by the Ottomans to make use of the latter's son Jozsef, all Ottoman designs on Erdel being finally abandoned with the peace of Belgrade in 1152/1739. The main events in the post-Ottoman history of Erdel are the submission of a large number of local Rumanian Orthodox to the Pope (the Union of 1700), the Rumanian peasant rising of 1784, the decision of the Diet in 1848 to merge with Hungary and finally the accession of Erdel to Rumania under the treaty of Trianon in 1920. 
 

 Bibliography: A. Centorio degli Hortensi, Commentarii della guerra di Transilvania, Venice 1566; C. Spontone, Historia della Transilvania, Venice 1638; Regni Hungarici Historia ... a Nicolao Isthuanffio, Coloniae Agrippinae 1724; G. Kraus, Siebenburgische Chronik (Osterr. Akad. d. Wiss., Fontes Rerum Austriacorum, Abh. I, Bde iii-iv), Vienna 1862-4; ed. S. Szilagyi, Monumenta comitalia regni Transylvaniae. Erdelyi orszdgguUsi emttkek. i-xxi, Budapest 1876-98 (MCRT); idem, Transylvania et bellum boreoorientale, Budapest 1890-1; Hurmuzaki, Documente privitoare la istoria Romdnilor, i-xxxii, Bucharest, from 1887 with supplements; A. Szilady and Al. Szilagyi, Torokmagyarkori dllamokmdnytdr, Budapest 1868-72, i-vii; Monumenta Hungariae historica, Sect, ii, "Scriptores"; ed. A. Veress, Basta Gyorgy hadvezer Sevelezese es Iratai (1597-7607) [MonuERDEL — ERETNA 705 menta Hungariae historica. Diplomataria, vols. 31° 25' E., in the region of the coalfields formerly xxxiv and xxxvii], Budapest 1909-14; ed. idem, named after it, but now called after Zonguldak. Fontes rerum Transylvanicarum, i-iii, Budapest The kaza, now in the vilayet of Zonguldak, was 1913; idem, Documente privitoare la istoria Ardea- once in the sand^ak (or liwd*) of Bolu. This used to lului, Moldovei si Tdrii Romdnesti, Bucharest belong to the eydlet of Anadolu, and in the igth 1929-38, i-xii; R. Goos, Osterreichische Staats- century to the wildyet of Kastamonu. The place has vertrdge. Filrstentum Siebenburgen (1526-1690], 8,815 inhabitants (1960) and the district 67,661. Vienna 1911; G. E. Miiller, Die Turkenherrschaft Bibliography: Pauly -Wissowa, 8, 433; V. in Siebenburgen [Sudosteuropaisches Forschungs- Cuinet, La Turquie d'Asie, iv, 512. Institut, Sekt. Hermannstadt, Deutsche Abteilung 2) Konya (formerly Karaman) Ereglisi, TO ii], Hermannstadt 1923; G. Bascape, Le relazioni 'HpaxXeo^ KaoTpov in Theophanes, i, 482 (ed. de fra rItalia e la Transilvania nel secolo XVI, Rome Boor), Y) TOU 'HpaxXeoQ Kco^OTroXic; of Michael 1931. Other sources have been cited in the course Attaliata, 136 (ed. Bonn), the Hirakla of the Arabs, of the article. For further studies see bibliography Erakllya of Ibn Bibi (transl. Duda, 19, 238 f.), in in/A,s.v. Turkish occasionally in the more archaic form 


(A. DECEI and M. TAYYIB GOKBILGIN)